An RSA-Type OTP Generator

An RSA-Type OTP Generator An RSA-Type OTP Generator Aiswarya Vinayachandran,  Sivasankar M Abstract Simple and secure authentication protocols are in great demand due to the ever expanding use of internet for financial and message communications. Multifactor authentication, in particular 2Factor Authentication (2FA) is preferred to static passwords-only authentication. One Time Passwords (OTPs) play a vital role in the construction of 2FA protocols. In this paper, an efficient OTP generation algorithm, based on RSA scheme is discussed. Implementation and computational issues related to the algorithm are also discussed. Keywords: Authentication, RSA, One Time Password, LFSR, Primitive Element 1. Introduction These days, almost all our day to day activities, starting from buying vegetables to booking a movie ticket depend on internet. As highly private data is being communicated between the server and the client, secure protocols are required for protecting these transactions from attackers. Over the years, we realized that encryption methods alone are not sufficient to secure online transactions. Hence evolved the idea of sending some message each time personally to the user and prompting him to send back the message along with his/her password to complete the transaction. This provides a second layer of security and strength to the existing concept of static passwords. In this paper, we present a way to generate OTPs, based on RSA type exponentiation. This research paper is organised as: Section 2 explains authentication process; Section 3 briefly discusses the conventional way of OTP generation; Section 4 is the proposed algorithm; Section 5 discusses about the randomness in the generation of the OTPs; Section 6 analyses the operational complexity and security of the proposed algorithm; Section 7 gives some concluding remarks. 2. Authentication Authentication is the process of identifying the legitimate user [1]. The identity is proven by various cryptographic methods where the user has to enter some input to the system. This can range from simply entering a password to more complicated security mechanisms like biometrics, strings displayed by tokens, key encryptions. Based on this input, the system will identify and authenticate the person. After authentication, comes authorization, where the system identifies the various privileges available to the user. Only authorized users can get access to the data as not all the users will have the same privileges. Some users will be allowed to only read the data while some users will be allowed to read as well as modify it. 2.1. Message Authentication Message authentication is used to check if the received message has been tampered in the middle of the communication channel. Message authentication is used to protect the integrity of the message wherein the receiver should be notified if any bits in the message are modified, removed or extra bits are added during the communication. This is achieved by sending a message digest – usually hash of the message will be the digest – together with the message. If the receiver also is obtaining the same digest over the received message then he/she can be sure of the integrity of the message. 2.2. Entity Authentication Entity authentication is the process in which an entity (machine/human) in a distributed network will get belief on another entity (machine/human) based on a key already established between them. The idea is that the key is kept secret and only the two genuine communicating entities know the secret key. Machine authentication is achieved through the verification of digital credentials or digital certificates. Digital Credentials are like a machine provided ID and password or a digital certificated issued by a Certifying Authority (CA). It is like a digital passport that provides trusted identification. Digital Signature is a mathematical technique used to validate the authenticity of a digital document, software or a message. It is used to identify whether a communication is impersonalized. Human based authentication relies on at least one of the three key factors: something the user knows (a password or an answer to a security question), something the user possesses (an object for authentication, say smart card), and something the user is (behavioural or physiological characteristics of the individual say, finger print and retina scanning). 3. Conventional OTP Generators OTP is an authentication technique, which comes in the second layer of authentication protocols after static passwords. An OTP is valid only for a single transaction. Even if an attacker succeeds in decrypting the password of a user, he/she has to get the OTP generated to validate the transaction. Since OTP is based on randomness/collision resistance, it is very difficult to guess an OTP. Even if the attacker succeeds in acquiring an OTP, he may not be able to predict the next OTP. OTP generation is based on hashing algorithms. Hashing is an irreversible process, i.e. for an input we can get the output, but with the obtained output we cannot get back the input. Even if an attacker obtains many OTPs, it is of no use as he/she cannot find a pattern to guess the seed used to generate the OTPs. An OTP is valid for a limited time, generally two to fifteen minutes based on the web site’s restrictions. Also in online transactions, while entering an OTP, a user is allowed to make errors only a limited number of times, say twice or thrice, which again adds to its security. A most common way of generating a sequence of OTPs[2] is described in Algorithm 1. Algorithm 1: Conventional OTP Generation Algorithm Note that the weakness of the OTP mechanism lies on the channel used to send the OTP and the security of the device to which the OTP is send. It will be advisable to secure the device with some biometric credentials making it totally safe. 4 Proposed RSA type OTP Generating Algorithm After the invention of public key cryptography, encrypted communication reached the next level. In general, public key cryptography relies on some hard mathematical problems like Integer Factorisation Problem (IFP), Discrete Logarithm Problem (DLP) [3]. As our proposed OTP generation is based on RSA crypto-system, we briefly do a recap of RSA encryption [4]. 4.1 The RSA Algorithm The Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) algorithm is one of the popular and secure publickey encryption methods. The security of the algorithm relies on the fact that there is no efficient way to factor very large numbers. Using an encryption key (e, N), the algorithm is as follows: Choose two very large prime numbers, p and q; Set N equal to p.q. Choose any large integer, d, such that gcd(d, à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦(N) ) = 1. Find e such that e.d = 1 (mod à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦(N)); The encryption key (e,n) is made public. The decryption key d is kept private by the user. Represent the message as an integer between 0 and (N-1). Encrypt the message by raising it to the eth power mod n. The result is the cipher text C. To decrypt the cipher text message C, raise it to the power d mod n 4.2 Proposed OTP Generation Technique: Our proposed algorithm is based on RSA encryption/decryption process and is described in Algorithm 2 below. Algorithm 2: Proposed Algorithm The above procedure can be represented by a schematic diagram as in Fig.1. Fig. 1. Architecture of the Proposed Model 4.3. A Comment on the Selection of N and the Possible Number of OTPs Present day OTPs are of generally 6 digits in length. Hence they can range from 000000 to 999999, totalling to 10,00,000. This is so, as we have 10 choices (numbers 0 to 9) for every digit and hence 10.10.10.10.10.10 = 106 = 10,00,000. If we incorporate a module to condition that the first two most significant digits should be non zero, even then 9.9.10.10.10.10 = 8,10,000 OTPs are available. In our proposed algorithm, if we require 6 digit OTPs, we can select N close to the integer 999999. For example a choice of 991 . 997 = 988027 will be sufficient for our implementation. As the number of bits used to represent a 6 digit decimal number is approximately 20 bits (log2 999999 =19.93156713), we need to select a 20 bit RSA number for our algorithm. Note that, a 20 bit RSA crypto system can be easily broken by the present day computers when e and N are known outside. But here as the attacker does not know N and a, he/she cannot guess the next OTP, which is some random number that lies b etween 1 and N-1.The only information that the attacker can get is the current OTP, which is some 6 digit number. 5. Randomness in the Generation of the OTPs from ZN* Considering the demand for OTPs and the computational expenses of different exponential algorithms, it is advisable to follow a systematic approach for the selection of the random number aà ¯Ã†â€™Ã… ½ {1, 2,†¦ ,N–1} .We propose two convincing methods for the selection of a. 5.1. Linear Feedback Shift Registers (LFSRs): LFSR is a mechanism for generating random numbers based on the initial seed given to it. So if we start with a non-zero 20 bit string, the LFSR can generate all the other 220–1 20-bit strings. We refer to [5] for some basic facts about LFSR. An LFSR of length L consists of L stages 0,1 , †¦ , L-1, each capable of storing one bit and having one input and output and a clock which controls the movement of data. During each unit of time the following operations are performed; (i) the content of stage 0 is output and forms part of the output sequence; (ii) the content of stage i is moved to stage i 1 for each i, 1 ≠¤ i ≠¤ L – 1; (iii) the new content of stage L – 1 is the feedback bit s which is calculated by adding together modulo 2 the previous contents of a fixed subset of stages 0,1, †¦ , L – 1. We note that for an n-bit LFSR connectionpolynomials are available, where à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦ is the Euler’s totient function. So, for a six digit OTP, i.e. for a 20 bit string, we have = 24,000 choices. With each connection polynomial, we can generate all the 20-bit strings in different random ways. Since we have 24,000choices, we can assign a single connection polynomial for a single customer, and OTPs generated for each customer will be in entirely different pattern. 5.2 Primitive Roots: Another mechanism for generating 6 digit random numbers is by using the concept of primitive roots.We refer [6] for the concepts related to cyclic groups and generators/primitive elements..Let p be a prime number. Consider Zp*. Let gà ¯Ã†â€™Ã… ½ ZP*. As i vary from 0 to p–1, by computing gi mod p, we can generate all elements in Zp*. Here g is called the primitive root/generator of Zp*. As we have selected an RSA number N, which is not a prime number, to follow this kind of random number generation, we can N as a prime number very close to 999999. For example, N = p = 999983 will be sufficient. It is a known result that, if g is a primitive root, then gi is also a primitive root if gcd (i,à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦(p))=1. Hence we are available with à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦(à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦(p)) generators [6]. Hence if N = 999983 (a six digit prime), we have à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦(à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦(999983)) =493584 generators which means we have sufficiently large number of primitive roots at our disposal. 6. Computational Complexity and Security of the Proposed Algorithm The proposed algorithm is an RSA-type algorithm which uses modular exponentiation for its computation. The modular exponentiation operation generally consumes a considerable amount of time for large operands as it consists of a series of square-and-multiply operations under a modular value. For a particular user, e will be fixed. Hence the time complexity for ae (mod N) is O(log2e). As RSA is a widely implemented cryptosystem, improvements in modular exponentiation algorithms are evolving very frequently [7]. Though the proposed algorithm uses the concept of RSA with a 20-bit modular (where as the current standard is 256 to 512 bits), since a, e, N are not known publicly we achieve security through obscurity. 7. Conclusions and Future Works In this paper, we have proposed a new method to generate OTPs and discussed the possible ways of implementing it practically. There may exist other novel methods with less time complexity. Incorporating new methods we can design more efficient algorithm for generating OTPs. The possibility of generating alphanumeric OTPs will be also explored, in future. References [1]Bruce Schneier, â€Å"Applied Cryptographyâ€Å", Wiley Publications, 2002. [2] L. Lamport, â€Å"Password authentication with insecure communication,† Communications of the ACM,vol.24,no.11, pp.770-772,1981. [3] Neal Koblitz, â€Å"Towards a Quarter Century of Public Key Cryptography†, A Special Issue of Designs, codes and Cryptography, Vol. 19, No. 2/3, Springer, 2000. [4] Rivest R. L. ,Shamir A.,Adleman L., â€Å"A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-key Cryptosystems†, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 120-126, 1978. [5] Alfred, J., Van Menezes Paul, C., Oorschot, S., Vanstone, A. â€Å"Handbook of Applied Cryptography† , CRC Press LCC (1996) [6] James K Strayer, â€Å"Elementary Number Theory† ,Waveland Press, 2001. [7] Gueron, Shay and Krasnov, Vlad , â€Å" Software Implementation of Modular Exponentiation, Using Advanced Vector Instructions Architectures† , LNCS Vol. 7369, pp.119-135, Springer, 2012.

Islam :: essays research papers

ISLAM   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There has been much talk about Muslim beliefs and the Islam nation altogether. The basis of the religion is peaceful and understanding. While people twist the belief around to fit their own needs. It is based on the teachings of Muhammad. He was born in Mecca, which is the capital of Islamic belief.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Muhammad was born and raised in the city of Mecca. He grew up as a merchant and had a wife. He would wander around outside of the city by himself often. He wandered so much that he had no job but his wife believed in him so she supported him. One day he had a vision of the angel Gabriel. Gabriel told him that he was a prophet and he should spread the word of god. He went back to Mecca and told everyone what had happened and decided to teach everyone the way of God. No one believed him and he was ridiculed for his beliefs. So he decided to go on a trip which was called the â€Å"Hijra†. When he came back to Mecca he had many converts. Then the people of Mecca started to believe him and became converts themselves. This is the story of Muhammad and his teachings. All this and more were written down in the Muslim holy book, the â€Å"Koran†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The five pillars are the five ways to be a good and decent Muslim. The first pillar is â€Å"Shahadah† which is to declare your belief by saying shahadah. Which means declaring god or Allah is almighty, and believing in the prophethood of Muhammad. The second pillar is â€Å"Salah† or prayer. Prayer must be done five times a day towards Mecca or the general direction of Mecca. The third pillar is â€Å"Zakah† or tax on the wealth. Everyone must give a percent of their earnings to the poor. The fourth pillar is â€Å"Sawm† which is fasting during the month of Ramadan. The fifth and last pillar is to at least once in their lives to â€Å"Hajj† or make a trip to Mecca when one is willing and able to.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is so much trouble in the world because of guys who like to change the meaning of some things in religion when it is obvious what they mean.

Statement of Purpose Santosh G Vattam MS

Statement of purpose Santosh G Vattam MS, Embedded Systems (CIS), May 2012 Research Interest I am a Master of Science and Engineering student majoring in Embedded Systems from University of Pennsylvania, graduating in May 2012. I am interested in embedded systems modeling and model based code generation. This interest has developed thanks to my research project with Prof. Insup Lee as well as the Embedded and Cyber Physical Systems and the Principles of Embedded Computation courses I took at Penn with Prof. Insup Lee and Prof. Rajeev Alur respectively.The Embedded and CPS course involved modeling and implementation of a pacemaker, while the Principles of Embedded Computation course provided the much needed theoritical foundation for developing embedded system models and verifying and validating thus developed models. Research projects In Jan 2011, I started working on the Medical Device Dongle(MDD) Project with Prof. Insup Lee. The idea was to make patient monitoring, patient centric rather than device centric by developing a standards-based interface for medical device interoperability.We decided to use the existing device interoperability standard – IEEE11073-PHD with slight modications. I implemented the rst prototype of the IEEE11073 Manager and Agent state machines. We later encountered the problem of providing a medium for using the services of the MDD and thus we designed and implemented an interface to sit on top of the MDD. We have since presented our work at the Wireless Health Conference 2011, San Diego, CA and at Embedded Software Week Android competition, Taipei, Taiwan. We shall also be presenting at the International Health Informatics Symposium, Miami, FL in Jan 2012.Prior to this, I have worked on the Coverage Analysis of RTEMS(Real Time Executive for Multiprocessor Systems) as part of Google Summer of Code 2009 and mentored another student in 2010 for the same project. This project was my rst step into the embedded world. I wrote tes t cases to validate that every single line of object code generated was executed. I worked on the RTEMS-core codebase and in 2010 I mentored a student to work on the extended codebase. Research focus I would like to focus my research on model based code generation and validating the conformation of code to the model on which it was based.This is a problem that I have come across while working on the MDD project. We have based our design on the IEEE11073 architecture but there are no open implementations of it through which we can verify our implementation. There are certain validation tools but these just analyze the packet structure of the 11073 packets but not the ow of these packets within the network of devices. I am partly tackling this problem through my Masters thesis by writing test cases to validate the exchange of the right packets. This method, however, does not provide insight into the internal state ow of the code. I would like to study, n depth, the ways of validating code to the state model. I believe that by pursuing a PhD I shall not only gain the necessary skill set to tackle this problem, but also the insight of looking at unstructured data and obtaining structured information from it. Prof Insup Lee and his team at the PRECISE Center work on model based design and validation in the medical device domain. I have been working with Prof. Insup Lee and his team for close to a year now on the MDD project. I believe that the environment and the expertise at the PRECISE Center will provide me with the encouragement and the academic stimulus to excel at my research. Statement of Purpose Santosh G Vattam MS Statement of purpose Santosh G Vattam MS, Embedded Systems (CIS), May 2012 Research Interest I am a Master of Science and Engineering student majoring in Embedded Systems from University of Pennsylvania, graduating in May 2012. I am interested in embedded systems modeling and model based code generation. This interest has developed thanks to my research project with Prof. Insup Lee as well as the Embedded and Cyber Physical Systems and the Principles of Embedded Computation courses I took at Penn with Prof. Insup Lee and Prof. Rajeev Alur respectively.The Embedded and CPS course involved modeling and implementation of a pacemaker, while the Principles of Embedded Computation course provided the much needed theoritical foundation for developing embedded system models and verifying and validating thus developed models. Research projects In Jan 2011, I started working on the Medical Device Dongle(MDD) Project with Prof. Insup Lee. The idea was to make patient monitoring, patient centric rather than device centric by developing a standards-based interface for medical device interoperability.We decided to use the existing device interoperability standard – IEEE11073-PHD with slight modications. I implemented the rst prototype of the IEEE11073 Manager and Agent state machines. We later encountered the problem of providing a medium for using the services of the MDD and thus we designed and implemented an interface to sit on top of the MDD. We have since presented our work at the Wireless Health Conference 2011, San Diego, CA and at Embedded Software Week Android competition, Taipei, Taiwan. We shall also be presenting at the International Health Informatics Symposium, Miami, FL in Jan 2012.Prior to this, I have worked on the Coverage Analysis of RTEMS(Real Time Executive for Multiprocessor Systems) as part of Google Summer of Code 2009 and mentored another student in 2010 for the same project. This project was my rst step into the embedded world. I wrote tes t cases to validate that every single line of object code generated was executed. I worked on the RTEMS-core codebase and in 2010 I mentored a student to work on the extended codebase. Research focus I would like to focus my research on model based code generation and validating the conformation of code to the model on which it was based.This is a problem that I have come across while working on the MDD project. We have based our design on the IEEE11073 architecture but there are no open implementations of it through which we can verify our implementation. There are certain validation tools but these just analyze the packet structure of the 11073 packets but not the ow of these packets within the network of devices. I am partly tackling this problem through my Masters thesis by writing test cases to validate the exchange of the right packets. This method, however, does not provide insight into the internal state ow of the code. I would like to study, n depth, the ways of validating code to the state model. I believe that by pursuing a PhD I shall not only gain the necessary skill set to tackle this problem, but also the insight of looking at unstructured data and obtaining structured information from it. Prof Insup Lee and his team at the PRECISE Center work on model based design and validation in the medical device domain. I have been working with Prof. Insup Lee and his team for close to a year now on the MDD project. I believe that the environment and the expertise at the PRECISE Center will provide me with the encouragement and the academic stimulus to excel at my research.

Free Essays on Favorite Teacher

My Favorite Teacher As a student growing up I had a lot of teachers like everyone else, but one teacher who really stimulated me was Mrs. Sandra Gregg. Mrs. Gregg is still today an elementary teacher at Brunson-Dargan Elementary School. There are many reasons why she stimulated me to become a teacher. The most important qualities she possesses are: she shows dedication through her students, patience through her teaching abilities, devotion through her work and most importantly is her love for all her students. Mrs. Gregg is an excellent role model for many children because she has many unique qualities that a lot of teachers lack today. Mrs. Gregg showed an enormous amount of patience to her students. If a student did not do their homework she never got frustrated instead she had many useful techniques to motivate her students to apply themselves. The way she approached a student who did not do their homework was by sitting next to them during class and by spending more time one on one with that student. There was never a wrong answer in her class and she encouraged her students to learn by reading stories, writing letters to each other and by drawing pictures. Mrs. Gregg always gave her students a hug just for showing an effort in her class, which showed me her love for us. The final yet greatest quality Mrs. Gregg possesses is that through her work she demonstrates her devotion to teaching. Anyone who knows her can see how committed she is to her work. She is one of those individuals who are gifted with the job that they do because she brings out the best qualities in her students. She inspires her students to be motivated to learn and to belief in themselves. In my opinion the greatest role model as a teacher is one who can achieve all these qualities and change lives like Mrs. Gregg has done already. The reason why I want to become a teacher is to help students be motivated to learn. I also want to make a difference in... Free Essays on Favorite Teacher Free Essays on Favorite Teacher My Favorite Teacher As a student growing up I had a lot of teachers like everyone else, but one teacher who really stimulated me was Mrs. Sandra Gregg. Mrs. Gregg is still today an elementary teacher at Brunson-Dargan Elementary School. There are many reasons why she stimulated me to become a teacher. The most important qualities she possesses are: she shows dedication through her students, patience through her teaching abilities, devotion through her work and most importantly is her love for all her students. Mrs. Gregg is an excellent role model for many children because she has many unique qualities that a lot of teachers lack today. Mrs. Gregg showed an enormous amount of patience to her students. If a student did not do their homework she never got frustrated instead she had many useful techniques to motivate her students to apply themselves. The way she approached a student who did not do their homework was by sitting next to them during class and by spending more time one on one with that student. There was never a wrong answer in her class and she encouraged her students to learn by reading stories, writing letters to each other and by drawing pictures. Mrs. Gregg always gave her students a hug just for showing an effort in her class, which showed me her love for us. The final yet greatest quality Mrs. Gregg possesses is that through her work she demonstrates her devotion to teaching. Anyone who knows her can see how committed she is to her work. She is one of those individuals who are gifted with the job that they do because she brings out the best qualities in her students. She inspires her students to be motivated to learn and to belief in themselves. In my opinion the greatest role model as a teacher is one who can achieve all these qualities and change lives like Mrs. Gregg has done already. The reason why I want to become a teacher is to help students be motivated to learn. I also want to make a difference in...

The Most Effective Social Media Marketing Tools Teams Use To Up Their Game

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Finite Element Method in Computer Simulation Outline

Finite Element Method in Computer Simulation - Outline Example In this scenario, some of the industrial uses and applications of FEA can comprise effect or crash analysis of automobiles, structural analysis of bridges and buildings, electromagnetic analysis of AC and DC motors, aerodynamic analysis of airplanes and airfoils, injection molding simulation of plastic components, fluid flow investigation in channels and pipes and heat transfer through housing and commercial places and buildings. In addition, FEA uses certain physical principles that guide it regarding the actions of these physical systems. In view of the fact that biological systems also comply with the similar basic physical principles, hence the FEA can also be used to forecast the physical reaction of biological systems to recognized loading circumstances (Roylance, 2001; BIO-Mesh, 2012). The first principle is known as preprocessing which allows the user to build a framework of the component of a physical system that has to be tested. Additionally, at this step, the geometry is classified into several separate subparts, which are linked with each other at isolated places acknowledged as nodes. In addition, these frameworks are believed to be very time-consuming to put in order, as well as viable codes oppose one another to get the most easy to use graphical preprocessor to support in this somewhat tiresome task. In some cases, these preprocessors can spread over the surface a mesh on a preexisting CAD, with the intention that element analysis can be completed handily as an element of the automated drafting and design process. In this scenario, the process that is followed by the FEA modeler in order to communicate this information to the FEA software is known as "boundary conditions." In addition, boundary conditions notify the FEA software how loading would be chal lenged by rotations of definite nodes and restricted displacements (Roylance, 2001; BIO-Mesh, 2012; Starns, 2010). This

Cultural dimension Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cultural dimension - Assignment Example The application of in-depth questions in the semi-structured questionnaires drew the study towards the acquisition of the required outcomes since the interviewees were not coerced to answer in a particular controlled manner. Therefore, the research process established the prevalence of a civilised culture in the Japanese society before the documentation of the Austrian culture. 2.1 Two students from Japan and Austria were selected for the interview, which involved the use of open-end questionnaires. The students were chosen because they possessed the most dominant and influential cultures in the history of civilization. With the use of open-end questions and semi-structured questionnaires, they were asked many questions; hence, they stimulated the opportunity of acquiring a wide range of answers in the absence of research bias. This was done by using the most important issues about their cultures. In this questionnaire, the participants were enquired to rate the most significant and particular issues. These questions helped in understanding concepts that hold significance to the respondents, and allowed critical decisions about the countries’ cultures. The two students answered the questions in accordance to their societal perspectives; hence, the results influenced the study to establish that the Japanese and Austrian societies were embracing democratic practices in leadership, with the common objective being the improvement of the lifestyles and economic progression. 2.2 The  next section represents an analytical approach that evaluates the information gathered during the study. Since the application of the qualitative method of survey enhanced the level of participation among the chosen sample population, it was noted that there were many differences and similarities between the Japanese and Austrian cultures. The Japanese culture is exceedingly older than the Austrian culture